Problems of Team Cohesiveness in Online Courses

Introduction When working with an online group, team cohesiveness is crucial for sharing of information and improving each member’s knowledge. The main challenge that befalls online courses teams is how to develop cohesiveness with the team members who might come from different cultural, economical, social, and political background; however with strategic moves, the cohesion can be developed (Parker, 2009).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Problems of Team Cohesiveness in Online Courses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This paper discusses how to improve team cohesiveness and the benefits that will be attained from health cohesion. Improving team cohesiveness To improve cohesiveness among online members when conferencing members should be allowed to discuss matters that are outside the main topic for some time; although care should be exercised that the amount of time taken does not deviate the main topics to cover. The matters that can bring people together include once culture, political situation in their country, some life experiences that they might have undergone and they are willing to share, hobbies and likes. Other than communicating via the teleconferencing, members should be encouraged to be members of the same social network site as they will be able to discuss other issue of life that will facilitate them opening up and creating the much needed cohesion. When it comes on the part of the course, the team should manage the course such that every member is given a chance to handle a certain topic them train the other members; with such moves, members will feel they are accountable of each other and their cohesion builds. Another aspect that builds cohesion among people is conflicts management and sharing of experiences; in the case there will be an occurrence that calls for solving among the team members, every member should be involves in looking for a solution. When this h appens, everyone will feel appreciated and a member of the larger team.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Benefits of team cohesion When working with a team that has a healthy cohesion, every member feels accountable and answerable to the larger group, with the feeling everyone works for the good of the other and thus team spirit is facilitated. When working in a team, communication and unselfish sharing of information is crucial, this can only be attained when the team has a good relation that is build through cohesion. There are times that conflicts among the members hinder the delivery of quality results, however when a team is well bonded, then such occurrences are unlikely to happen. Teams that have strong cohesion among themselves are highly motivated and fulfill their tasks and obligations in the team effectively; they are willing to learn and be taught by their counter parts. Motivation among members gives rise to high morale of fulfilling tasks that one has been allocated by the team and doing them diligently and on time. When challenged by other team members, member will be taking it positive and work to improve on the areas that have been pointed by others. Teams with good cohesiveness among themselves attain their targets and objectives with ease (Crother-Laurin, 2006). Conclusion Team cohesion is crucial for performance improvement among team members; it creates team spirit and promotes accountability of each team member. To promote the growth of team cohesiveness, team members need to respect each other opinion and criticize others positively. Team with high cohesiveness perform better and are more likely to attain their goals and objectives with ease. References Crother-Laurin, C. (2006). Effective Teams: A Symptom of Healthy Leadership. The Journal for Quality and Participation, 29(3), 4.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Problems of Team Cohesiveness in Online Courses specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Parker, G. ,(2009). Team Leadership: 20 Proven Tools for Success. New Jersey: Human Resource Development Press. This essay on Problems of Team Cohesiveness in Online Courses was written and submitted by user Silver Centurion to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making The WritePass Journal

The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making   Introduction The Impact of Tax Havens on Business Decision-making   IntroductionCharacteristics of Tax HavensThe Role of Tax Havens in International Market  Practical Uses of Tax HavensConclusionReferencesRelated   Introduction OECD’s initiatives have exemplified that tax havens have attracted more and more attention in recent years (OECD, 1998, 2000, 2004). Compared with nonhaven countries, tax havens have lower levels of corruption, better political and legal systems, and that they could defer or reduce tax liabilities to other countries through strategic use of debt among subsidiaries or transfer prices strategy. A 100% owned abroad subsidiary of a multinational company (MNC) can manipulate their interests, management fees, transfer prices and royalties charges, which can cause the subsidiary to avoid some tax payments in home country. Generally, a MNC could minimize taxable income arising in high tax countries, increase investments in low tax countries to reduce the average tax rate on their profits, or in order to delay the investment income from high tax jurisdictions, they could keep these earnings in a very low-tax country before they are used (Miller and Oats, 2009). If firms can get low tax rates abroad, they may not bring the money back to their home countries which have high tax rate, as a result, when the MNC recycles its foreign profits arising abroad, these earnings could be exempted from being retained earnings or foreign borrowings. Tax havens could be used as a means to protect portfolio gains from foreign direct investment profits. This is mainly because the infrastructure in tax havens is much more suitable to mobile portfolio income. This paper through analyzing three aspects of tax havens: its characteristics; its role in international market; the practical uses, mainly explains the impact of tax havens on business decision-making. Characteristics of Tax Havens Actually, the definition of tax havens still hasn’t been defined standard. Typically, in tax havens foreign investors can enjoy very favorable tax regimes, such as low or nil withholding tax rates or corporate tax rates on all or certain categories of income. In recent years, although the national tax group shares more and more kinds of information, another feature of tax havens bank or commercial secrecy laws is still very significant. Tax havens are low-tax jurisdictions, and in these areas investors have opportunities to get tax avoidance. No matter in what shape or form of tax havens, these countries and jurisdictions try to gain competitive advantages in commercial competitions through their particular tax systems. These tax havens are often recognized as offshore financial centers, which usually means â€Å"any shifting of funds out of the country of taxpayer residence for tax planning or tax evasion purposes† (Miller and Oats, 2009, p226). In offshore financial centers transactions with non-residents often exceed the related domestic transactions to a large extend (Dixon 2001, as cited in Miller and Oats, 2009, p225). These offshore financial centers normally have favorable regulatory system, legal environment and tax regime; MNCs perhaps adopt new financial products quickly and flexibly in the favorable legal environment. Dharmapala and Hines (2006) illustrate some characteristics of tax havens compared with nonhavens. In general, tax havens countries or territories are virtually wealthier than nonhavens. They usually have smaller population size, and their geographical characteristics are more likely to be islands with scarce natural resources, which can easily lead to economic openness. They also have substantial differences from nonhavens in legal origins and political institutions. Typically, tax havens have stronger governance institutions than comparable non-haven countries, and they are more likely to be dependent territories, have better legal and political systems. The examples of tax havens jurisdictions include Hong Kong and Singapore in Asia, Luxembourg and Ireland in Europe, and some Caribbean island nations in the Americas, and that within some countries there are also low-tax jurisdictions, for example special economic regions in China. The Gordon Report, prepared for the US Treasury in 1981, states some more characteristics of tax havens. Income and capital in tax havens countries usually can get lower or zero tax rate and banking or commercial secrecy provides some opportunities to tax avoidance and/or tax evasion. There is no exchange control, but it provides a provision of offshore banking facilities. Additionally, tax havens often have good communication facilities and political stability; they can provide an opportunity for multilateral tax planning. Foreign capital in these countries can get favorable disposition; professional advisers are always available for foreign investors. Furthermore, their convenient locations and decent communications climates, especially the freedom from excessive regulations,  Ã‚   The Role of Tax Havens in International Market There is a traditional â€Å"negative† view that tax havens play a disproportionate role in the world’s foreign direct investment (FDI) (Slemrod and Wilson, 2006), however, an emerging â€Å"positive† opinion of havens implies that their existence may not make high-tax countries get worse (Hines, 2006, 2007; Hong and Smart, 2007). High-tax countries may tax immobile firms more heavily, but tax havens impose lower tax rates on highly mobile firms. Given all other considerations equal, tax policies can affect MNCs’ FDI; lower tax rates could increase after-tax returns, thereby increasing investment funds. Generally, tax havens don’t have the responsibilities to provide the same function for all MNCs. The larger tax haven jurisdictions are (given the sizes of local economies), the greater opportunities taxpayers have to locate taxable profits. The same investment activities in countries with different tax rates may get very different opportunities for tax avoidance. MNCs can achieve tax avoidance in various manners, such as intrafirm trade, dividend repatriations, royalty payments, and intrafirm debt. Many enterprises use transfer prices within business transactions to reduce their overall tax burden, in fact, this approach is being widely suspected. MNCs typically can obtain certain benefits from allowing affiliates in high-tax countries to reduce the prices of goods and services provided to affiliates in low-tax countries. Transfer prices may be paid by groups not related to these transactions, however, when pricing issues relate to some special proprietary and differentiation provisions, this situation is getting to be quite complicated. Because of some legal looseness firms completely can adjust transfer prices without violating any laws. According to Hines and Rice (1994), tax havens can be used by MNCs to gain profits away from high-tax countries, but can also help to repatriate taxes from activities in low-tax jurisdictions. For mitigating double taxation a country can provide some credits to MNCs and use deferral policies before profits are repatriated. As a result, this approach may increase this country’s tax liabilities when repatriating profits earned in low-tax jurisdictions. Altshuler and Grubert (2003) state that through kinds of ownership arrangements tax havens can make deferral of repatriation taxes available.   Practical Uses of Tax Havens A former employee of a Liechtenstein bank sold business information to Germany’s tax authorities, in February 2008 this international scandal was exposed. This news made some German residents being prosecuted for tax evasion, and meanwhile it attracted tax havens’ more attention on tax evasion issues, because some individuals use tax havens to avoid home country taxes illegally. Countries with income tax systems tax their residents’ overseas earnings, such as the interest, dividends and capital gains, whereas tax payers can evade these taxes because of some loopholds in bank secrecy laws. If foreign individuals don’t report their income arising in tax havens countries to their home country, their home country won’t know this income, because bank secrecy in tax haven countries will not provide information about these earnings to home country (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2004). As a general matter, individuals’ use of havens can be evaluated by foreign portfolio investment (FPI). International portfolio diversification provides insurance against the economic risks from investor’s home country, so investors can get substantial gains (French and Poterba, 1991). Investors have many nontax advantages for international diversification in tax havens, whereas they have to spend some efficiency costs on the benefits of FPI. For the purpose of evasion more and more investors locate their portfolios abroad, however, the issues of fairness and confidence in the tax system is undermined (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2006a). The costs caused by individuals’ use of tax havens largely depend on the degree of tax evasion. Some significant amounts of revenues are lost by countries as a result of illegal tax evasion through havens. Firms also invest large amounts in tax havens, but the firms using of havens may be quite different from individuals. The firms, which prefer to operate in tax havens, are most active abroad, technology-intensive and with extensive intrafirm trade, and these firms always are large MNCs. In order to get tax avoidance in tax haven operations, these firms could allocate taxable income away from high-tax jurisdictions. In larger tax haven jurisdictions the firms primarily reallocate taxable income, whereas in smaller tax haven countries the primary use of these firms is to facilitate deferral of home country taxation of foreign income. If a tax haven operation could generate a 1.5 to two percent greater sales and investment growth, in non-haven countries it’s only one percent greater likelihood (Desai, Foley and Hines, 2006b). Generally, these firms are not seeking to evade home country corporate taxes; they use tax havens for getting tax planning activities and tax avoidance lega lly. MNCs can use havens to defer or reduce their tax liabilities to other governments. Most nonhaven countries have two approaches to taxing their resident corporations’ overseas income: a â€Å"worldwide† system (used by the US, the UK and Japan) provides a foreign tax credit (FTC) for taxes paid to foreign governments to avoid the double taxation; a â€Å"territorial† system (used by most capital exporting countries, such as Germany and the Netherlands) exempts abroad income from home country taxation (Hong and Smart, 2007). For MNCs in territorial countries, income from the home country or some other high-tax country could be reallocated to a tax haven. Actually, a worldwide system is not pure, for example the US allows the taxation of overseas earnings to be deferred until these earnings are â€Å"repatriated† to the US. Moreover, the tax paid to the tax haven government is low or nil, thus, MNCs based in countries prefer to use tax havens to reduce or def er their tax liabilities, and they can use of debt among affiliates and transfer pricing to achieve this aim. When subsidiaries of a MNC trade between themselves, the prices they used can affect the allocation of the MNCs’ income within different jurisdictions. Governments generally ask firms to use â€Å"arm’s-length† prices; however, arm’s-length markets may don’t exist for some transactions. Take intellectual property for example, subsidiaries of same MNC can choose the place to locate research and development activities in order to attract other subsidiaries’ royalty payments into lower-tax countries; or MNCs can also have affiliates in tax havens lend to affiliates in high-tax jurisdictions. This â€Å"interest stripping† or â€Å"earnings stripping† generates interest deductions in high-tax jurisdictions and makes interest payments flowing towards low-tax jurisdictions (Desai and Dharmapala, 2006). Though governments impose some restrictions on capital structure to restrict this situation, apparently it’s less successful. Conclusion In many countries the governments make policies to reduce the tax burden of their residents, but they cannot make people avoid taxes totally. If the exemption method of taxation is used simply, the residents may pay nothing on their income arising in a tax heaven country. Thus, there is a limited relief on the income from tax haven countries. The firms in tax haven countries could reallocate taxable income earned in high-tax jurisdictions and defer repatriation taxes on income from low-tax jurisdictions. Operations of MNCs in tax haven countries can be treated as part of their international tax avoidance strategies. Tax havens usually attract MNCs to establish affiliates there, and high RD industries and intrafirm trades with large volumes prefer to invest there as well. Presumably, larger tax haven countries are likely more suitable for subsidiaries to reallocate income, and to reflect the effects of transfer pricing enforcement. Apparently, firms investing abroad at faster rates ar e more likely to establish new tax haven operations to avoid taxes. References Altshuler, R. and Harry, G. (2003) Repatriation taxes, repatriation strategies and multinational financial policy. Journal of Public Economics, 87 (73)-107 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2004) Economic Effects of Regional Tax Havens. NBER Working Paper, No. 10806 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006a) The Demand for Tax Haven Operations. Journal of Public Economics, 90: 513-531 Desai, M. A., Foley, C. F. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006b) Do Tax Havens Divert Economic Activity?. Economics Letters, 90: 219-224 Desai, M. A. and Dharmapala, D. (2006) Corporate Tax Avoidance and High Powered Incentives. Journal of Financial Economics, 79: 145-179 Dharmapala, D. and Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006) Which Countries Become Tax Havens?. NBER Working Paper, NO. 12802 French, K. R. and Poterba, J. M. (1991) Investor Diversification and International Equity Markets. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 81: 222-226 Hines, J. R., Jr. and Rice, E. M. (1994) Fiscal Paradise: Foreign Tax Havens and American Business. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 109: 149-182 Hines, J. R., Jr. (2006) Will Social Welfare Expenditures Survive Tax Competition?. Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22: 330-348 Hines, J. R., Jr. (2007) â€Å"Corporate Taxation and International Competition† In A. J. Auerbach, Hines, J.R., Jr. and Slemrod, J. (eds.) Taxing Corporate Income in the 21st Century. UK: Cambridge University Press. Hong, Q. and Smart, M. (2007) In Praise of Tax Havens: International Tax Planning and Foreign Direct Investment. CESIfo Working Paper, No. 1942 Miller, A. and Oats, L. (2009) Principles of International Taxation. 2nded. UK: Tottel Publishing, Haywards Heath. pp. 225-229 OECD (1998) Harmful Tax Competition: An Emerging Global Issue.Paris: OECD OECD (2000) Towards Global Tax Cooperation: Progress in Identifying and Eliminating Harmful Tax Practices. Paris: OECD. OECD (2004) The OECD’s Project on Harmful Tax Practices: The 2004 Progress Report. Paris: OECD. Slemrod, J. and Wilson, J. D. (2006) Tax Competition with Parasitic Tax Havens. NBER Working Paper, No. 1225

A Brief History of Womens Property Rights in the U.S.

A Brief History of Women's Property Rights in the U.S. Today, its easy to take for granted that women can take out a line of credit, apply for a home loan, or enjoy property rights. However, for centuries in the United States and Europe, this was not the case. A womans husband or another male relative controlled any property allotted to her. The gender divide concerning property rights was so widespread that it inspired Jane Austen novels such as Pride and Prejudice and, more recently, period dramas such as Downton Abbey. The plot lines of both works involve families made up solely of daughters. Because these young women cant inherit their fathers property, their future depends on finding a mate. Womens right to own property was a process that took place over time, starting in the 1700s. By the 20th century, women in the U.S. could be property owners, just as men were. Womens Property Rights During Colonial Times American colonies generally followed the same laws of their mother countries, usually England, France, or Spain. According to British law, husbands controlled womens property. Some colonies or states, however, gradually gave women limited property rights. In 1771, New York passed the Act to Confirm Certain Conveyances and Directing the Manner of Proving Deeds to Be Recorded, legislation gave a woman some say in what her husband did with their assets. This law required a married man to have his wifes signature on any deed to her property before he sold or transferred it. Moreover, it required that a judge meet privately with the wife to confirm her approval. Three years later, Maryland passed a similar law. It required a private interview between a judge and a married woman to confirm her approval of any trade or sale by her husband of her property. So, while a woman may not have technically been allowed to own property, she was allowed to prevent her husband from using hers in a way she found objectionable. This law was put to the test in the 1782 case Flannagans Lessee v. Young. It was used to invalidate a property transfer because no one had verified if the woman involved actually wanted the deal to go through. Massachusetts also took women into consideration regarding its property rights laws. In 1787, it passed a law allowing married women, in limited circumstances, to act as femme sole traders. This term refers to women who were allowed to conduct business on their own, especially when their husbands were out to sea or away from home for another reason. If such a man was a merchant, for example, his wife could make transactions during his absence to keep the coffers full. Progress During the 19th Century Its important to note that this review of womens property rights mostly means white women. Slavery was still practiced in the U.S. at this time, and enslaved Africans certainly did not have property rights; they were deemed property themselves. The government also trampled on the property rights of the indigenous men and women in the U.S. with broken treaties, forced relocations, and colonization generally. As the 1800s began, people of color did not have property rights in any meaningful sense of the word, though matters were improving for white women. In 1809, Connecticut passed a law permitting married women to execute wills, and various courts enforced provisions of prenuptial and marriage agreements. This allowed a man other than a womans husband to manage the assets she brought to the marriage in a trust. Although such arrangements still deprived women of agency, they likely prevented a man from exercising total control of his wifes property. In 1839, a Mississippi law passed giving white women very limited property rights, largely involving slavery. For the first time, they were allowed to own enslaved Africans, just as white men were. New York gave women the most extensive property rights, passing the Married Womens Property Act in 1848 and the Act Concerning the Rights and Liabilities of Husband and Wife in 1860. Both of these laws expanded the property rights of married women and became a model for other states throughout the century. Under this set of laws, women could conduct business on their own, have sole ownership of gifts they received, and file lawsuits. The Act Concerning the Rights and Liabilities of Husband and Wife also acknowledged mothers as joint guardians of their children along with fathers. This allowed married women to finally have legal authority over their own sons and daughters. By 1900, every state had given married women substantial control over their property. But women still faced gender bias when it came to financial matters. It would take until the 1970s before women were able to get credit cards. Before then, a woman still needed her husbands signature. The struggle for women to be financially independent of their husbands extended well into the 20th century.

The body is a tool through which to construct the self Essay

The body is a tool through which to construct the self - Essay Example The concept of using the body to represent ideas about the self is quite ancient. Not all citizens have always had the chance to express their true selves through their bodies. For instance, for a long time, it was male artists who defined feminine qualities because women were not expected to have any ideas about the functions of their own bodies. Male artists would produce idealisations of the female shape that were not accurate. This affected how women perceived themselves. It is important for all individuals to feel that they can express their identities through their bodies without being held to a pre-established false standard of themselves. The body was used as a canvas for self-expression by the earliest humans that existed 30,000 years ago. According to Grezes, Pichon, and de Gelder (2007), archaeologists have found ochre deposits and handprints in caves in different parts of the world that are indicative of body painting functions. Ancient burial mounds of civilisations that existed thousands of years ago also show indications of body changing operations such as flattened skulls, or elongated heads. This proves that ancient civilisations engaged in head shaping practices to express aspects that their communities believed in. From such characteristics, it is obvious that even in ancient civilisations community members would make marks on their bodies that were expressions of social status, individuality, or cultural identity. People did not just construct their selves through their bodies by means of markings, however. They also used socially accepted forms of body expression such as dance. According to Hogan and Strasburger (2008), dance includes the physical movement of the body to the accompaniment of music. It is accurate to say that dance has been used as a way of one or more individuals communicating with others. Before the invention of written language, many communities would use dance to express themselves and even communicate stories between

Hazard and vulnerability Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hazard and vulnerability - Essay Example The assumption that 'natural' disasters are inherently and predominantly natural phenomena has tended to exclude the social sciences from consideration in much of the spending that is done in disaster preparedness. This is despite the fact that over the last twenty years a considerable literature on disasters has emerged from human geography, sociology, anthropology and (to a lesser extent) economics. For many years, social science has contributed to policy formation for disasters (especially in the Third World) through the activities of many Non-Government Organisations (NGOs). The initial development of vulnerability analysis is then rooted in social science, and in a sense has constituted a political economy of disasters to the analysis of devastating events that are normally associated with natural hazards. At its most simplistic, vulnerability analysis asserts that for there to be a disaster there has to be not only a natural hazard, but also a vulnerable population. Much of the conventional work on disasters has been dominated by 'hard science', and has been a product of the prominence that natural phenomena have acquired in the disaster causation process. But this 'physicalist' approach is also a result of the social construction of disasters as events that demonstrate the human condition as subordinate to Nature.

Anthropological Perspective on Culture and Society

Anthropological Perspective on Culture and Society The three branches of human sciences (Social sciences), Sociology, Anthropology and Psychology are interlinked in that they try to describe the different areas of human life and their relationships to each other. They offer an explanation on human behavior and in the society they live. Furthermore, these social sciences provide essential skills in analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and groups they encounter. Individual identity is forged by ones culture, groups, and by institutional influences. Institutions such as families, schools and even churches greatly influence human beings yet these institutions are merely organizations whose aim is to develop the core social values of its constituents. In discussing cultural diversity on the perspectives of the three social sciences there is a need to understand the difference between culture and society. This is because the all the three disciplines explore culture and society to understand human behavior in depth. The term Culture has many different meanings, for some it is the appreciation of art, literature, music and food, while for others like biologists; they take it as a colony of microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory. However for social scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning and adaptations. Children obtain such traditions by growing up in a certain society, through a process called enculturation. A culture results into a degree of uniformity in behavior and thought among the inhabitants of a particular society (Baugher et. al, 2000, p. 4). The terms culture and society are different as cultures are co nsidered to be complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions while society is a group of interacting organisms. Therefore this paper will critically analyze cultural diversity based on the three social sciences, evaluating the social sciences similarities and differences. Discussion Anthropological perspective of culture diversity When it comes to understanding diversity in cultures, the anthropological view can help humanity understand and appreciate the complexity of diverse cultures. This discipline involves the study of biological and cultural origins of the humans. The subject matter of anthropology is wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non human primate anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present languages, and all the prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world. The subfield of cultural anthropology is the most commonly studied and useful in analyzing and interpreting the diverse cultures of the world. In recent years, recognition of the need for multicultural awareness, understanding, and skills has grown in our society. The aim is to achieve multicultural diversity competence, which is a term that refers to the ability to demonstrate respect and understanding, to communicate effectively, and to work with different cultural backgrounds (George Fischer, 1999, p. 71). These diversities in culture encompass differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, social class and physical appearance. Misunderstandings and conflicts in the society are two major consequences of lack of awareness in the ever increasing cultural diversity. Cultural anthropology explains cultural diversity through aspects of social life such as material culture, social organizations, politics, economics, symbolism, change and development, ethnici ty and modern nation-state formation. In explaining and interpreting the diverse cultures, anthropology uses ethnography- describing particular cultures; and ethnology- comparing two or more cultures. In addition it incorporates the holistic approach in cultural studies by studying biological and cultural aspects of human behavior; encompassing the broadest possible time frame by looking at contemporary, historic and prehistoric societies; examining human culture in every part of the world; and studies many different aspects of human culture (George Fischer, 1999, p.68). Cultural diversity is relevant to a cultural approach in learning, in that learning and motivational styles and cross cultural pedagogical strategies assume attention to diversity in learner populations and pluralistic learning outcomes. The data, concepts and insights derived from the study of other cultures helps us meet our professional goals and lead more satisfying lives in a multicultural society (Herdman Macmillan, 2010, p. 23). Moreover, the process of studying anthropology is also valuable because of the skills and competencies that it helps to develop. Activities such as taking courses about different cultures, participating in local internships and international organizations, living in the universitys international dormitory, and participating in study abroad programs all combine to provide students with valuable skills in understanding diverse cultures hence achieve multicultural diverse competence. There is a need to come up with a strategy to accept cultural diversity, for example, in the United states of America the freedom to pursue ones individual dream and fortunes in the united states has produced a widening gap between the haves and have-nots. According to Herdman and Mcmillian, 2010, managing directors in United States of America made forty times as much compared to the average worker in 1973 and three hundred as much in 2004. At the same time, earnings of middle class were growing slightly and those of lower class were actually shrinking. This situation to a European means that the state is working against well being of the population, particularly in light of tax cuts during this period. Another instance is when expressing feelings of affection which is typical for all human. The manner in which the affection is expressed is cultural, the kiss is not universally accepted as a symbol of affection; some societies consider it suggestive of cannibalism. A basic anthropological strategy for understanding other cultures is to look at a cultural feature from within its original context rather than looking at it from the perspective of ones own culture; being inquisitive, non-judgmental, and open to new ways of thinking is vital in understanding other cultures; Balancing contradictory needs instead of trying to eliminate them; emphasize global team work; develop a cognitive complex which is made up of twin abilities of differentiating and integrating; and developing a personal acuity (Naylor, 1997, p. 157). The strategy will not only help you personally in understanding other cultures but assist you in integrating to any culture globally. Sociological perspective on Cultural Diversity Sociology is critical analysis of the society in which humans live. People who make sense of the social world-past, present and future- are referred to as sociologists (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 8). Sociologists research on social structures such as class, family, politics, social problems like drug abuse and crime all of which influence the society. Social interaction amongst humans is the basic sociological concept, because all humans and groups that make up a society socialize. Specialists who focus on particular details of specific interactions as they occur daily are called micro sociologists and those that focus on larger patterns of interactions amongst larger sections of the society such as state and economy are called macro sociologists. A society is rarely culturally uniform hence the result of different cultures. As societies develop and become more complex, different cultural traditions appear. The more complex the society, the more likely the culture will be internally varied and diverse. The causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition of cultural change by outside world (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 72). Two concepts from sociology help in understanding complexity of culture in a given society, dominant culture and subcultures. Dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in the society. Although it is not the only culture in society, it is commonly referred to be the culture of a society, despite other cultures present. Subcultures on the other hand are cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior differ from those of the dominant culture. Members of subcultures tend to interact frequently and share a common world view. Sociology stipulates that culture consists of both material objects and abstract thoughts and behavior. Several elements which sociologists consider in understanding culture diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Kaufman, 2004, p. 7). Language: Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society. Language shapes culture as it provides the categories through which social reality is understood. This was proved by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Worf in the 1950s through their theory called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis states, it is not that you perceive something first and then think of how to express it, but that language itself determines what you think and perceive (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 83). In understanding cultural diversity language is seen to reflect the assumptions of a culture. This is seen and exemplified by: language affecting peoples perception of reality; Language reflecting the social and political status of different groups in society; Groups advocating changing language referring to them as a way of asserting positive group identity; The implications of language emerging from specific historical and cultural contexts; language distorting actual grou p experience; language shaping peoples perceptions of groups and events in society. Norms: They are specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation. Lack of norms in any society results in turmoil however, with established norms people would be able to act, behave and interact in a society properly. In the early years of sociology, William Graham Summer in 1906 identified two types of norms; folkways and mores. Folkways are general standards of behavior adhered to by a group, example wearing pants and not skirts for men. Mores are stricter mores which are seen to control moral and ethical behaviors such as injunctions, legal and religious. Beliefs: They are shared ideas people hold collectively within a given culture, and these beliefs are also the basis of many cultural norms and values, example in USA there is a widespread belief in God. Sociology study belief in a variety of ways, and each theoretical mentation provides different insights into the significance of beliefs for human society. Values: They are abstract standards in a society or group that defines the ideal principles of what is desirable and morally correct, for example in USA equality and freedom are important values which provide a general outline for behavior. Values provide values for behavior, but can also be sources of conflict like the political conflict over abortion. Understanding the four elements of sociology enables proper integration in any society. Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found in a society. Sociology studies culture in a variety of ways, asking numerous questions about the relationship of culture to other social institutions and the role of culture in modern life. The new cultural perspective on culture according to Naylor, 1997, is that it is ephemeral, unpredictable and constantly changing; is a material manifestation of consumer-oriented society; and is best understood by analyzing its artifacts- books, films, television images. Psychological Perspective on Culture Diversity Social psychology a subfield of psychology has its origins in the early years of the twentieth century. Its findings do not necessarily concern human thinking throughout history but rather meet the requirements of our modern society. Social psychology research aims to capture the interplay between social thinking and socio-historical dynamics in order to understand how societies function and how culture is produced (Xenia, 2004, p. 13). Psychology is distinguished from neighboring social sciences through its emphasis on studying samples of organisms within controlled settings rather than focusing upon larger groups, organizations or nations. Psychologists test the specific results of changes in a controlled environment on the individual in that environment, but there are strongly set procedures through which organisms are tested psychometrically. There is a big debate in psychology and more generally in social sciences how to define culture. In some definitions the concept of culture includes behavior, in the sense that our behaviors are expressions of our culture. Other definitions emphasize that participating in a culture means having understanding of our world. However with trying to find a consensual definition of this concept, the main argument of researchers in psychology is to highlight how important it is to take into account the cultural context in which psychological studies were conducted (Kerr Tindale, 2011). They were right to point out that humans are linked to the social context in which they live, proving that psychological functioning and human behavior are universal and culture specific. Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship with the social and physical environment; of communicating their thoughts and emotions; of prioritizing their activities; of dividing tasks and resources; of attributing values, honors, and power (Xenia, 2004, pp.17-18). When they do not share the above listed elements then culture diversity occurs from a psychological point of view. The people of diverse cultures are not like minded hence the question is, whether individuals from diverse cultures can coexist harmoniously in time space and under the same political and social organizations? The answer to this question provides the idea of how to cope with culture diversity. Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, modes of thinking and practices that are peculiar to them and different from others. Some cultures are more inclusive example western cultures, others refer to a small group of people for instance the Basque culture, but each one of them is important for its members because they represent the way they construct their social reality, and provides them with action alternatives. Conclusion Culture Diversity has been discussed using the three social science disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Even though all of them have a similarity of trying to understand culture diversity in humans, they are different in terms of how they approach the study. Anthropology looks at culture diversity at the perspective of humanity, his origin and through aspects of social life such as ethnicity, symbolism, politics, race and so on. Anthropology explains that the origin of culture diversity is through mankind hence the concentration a human perspective. Sociology looks at the society which humans live so as to explain culture diversity. It states that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about culture diversities. Psychology on the other hand analyses culture diversity with focus entirely on internal factors that influence individuals. Therefore the three social sciences provide an understanding of culture diversity and a basis of respecting other cultures.

Hedonics Presentation: Disgust

Disgust is an intriguing emotion. Psychologists have long been puzzled by its nature: how it develops in an individual and how it affects the society. According to Rozin et al (Rozin, Haidt, McCauley, 2000), there are nine domains of disgust elicitors in North Americans, namely: food, animals, body products, sexual behaviors, violations of the dermal layer, poor hygiene, physical contact with dead or corpses, interpersonal contamination and certain moral offenses. These elicitors are the key to the development as well as maintenance of disgust in humans.Food is considered the most fundamental factor in the development of such emotion. Disgust serves as a mechanism that helps protect the body from ingesting harmful objects or poisonous foods. It is a response towards bad tastes which are acquired through the mouth. As an emotion, disgust is manifested through behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia components. Thus, it can be analyzed by examining these components. Understan ding how disgust affects moral judgment, conflict and ethno-political violence lies in these categories.The purpose of this paper is to explain what disgust is, identify the different factors associated with its development, understand how it is expressed by an individual, and finally, explain how it affects the society. Expression of Disgust: How Disgust is expressed Personally and Culturally and the Role of Sympathetic Magic Disgust is a basic emotion that is listed in almost all lists of emotions with at least four types in it. It satisfies any criterion in characterizing emotions, may it be facial, semantic, or eclectic (Rozin et al, 2000).Expression of disgust in individuals as well as cultural entities is subdivided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia (Rozin et al, 2000). Laws of sympathetic magic also affect the display of disgust in an individual and how disgust is expressed in every cultural entity. Individual Expression Manifestation of disgust as an emotion in humans is subdivided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia (Rozin et al, 2000). In behavioral component, disgust is being expressed as keeping away from objects, events, or situations which are also characteristics of rejection.In the physiological component, disgust is manifested by two types of physiological changes: one is nausea and the other is salivation. Nausea is correlated with disgust, though it is not a requirement for someone to experience it. Salivation was introduced by Angyal as being correlated with the expression of disgust. It is also associated with nausea, though it can occur without resulting to or beginning from nausea. In the expressive component, disgust is manifested through facial expressions (Rozin, Lowery, & Ebert, 1994).A â€Å"disgust face† is an expression which is analogous to every human being. Such facial expressions include raised cheeks, narrowed eyebrows, curled upper lips, protrud ed tongue and wrinkled nose. Motions of the heads, such as jerking backwards and shaking from side-to-side, are also correlated with disgust. Sometimes, the person may utter sounds like â€Å"ach† or â€Å"ugh†. These expressions depend upon the nature of elicitors which are commonly used to discourage entry of something, most probably food, or as a response to something that causes the disgust, such as rotten flesh.The qualia component of disgust is the mental or feeling component which is considered to be the most difficult to study. As compared with other emotions, disgust is usually experienced in shorter time durations and some disgust-eliciting situations might invoke humor. Laws of Sympathetic Magic Two laws of sympathetic magic, contagion and similarity, which were vital in the formation of belief systems of ancient and traditional cultures, were found to have had great application in the study of various human behaviors (Rozin, Millman, & Nemeroff, 1986).Rozin et al (1986) were able to establish direct link between these laws and disgust. Contagion. The first law of sympathetic magic states that â€Å"once in contact, always in contact†. Contagion, as it is more popularly known, invokes varied response from people. One of which is disgust. As its definition suggests, contagion is the transfer of properties through physical contact of one object into another. Rozin et al (1986) studied how drinks became undesirable after a sterilized, dead cockroach was dipped into it.Cockroaches are usually associated with dirt and diseases and any contact with it invokes disgust. The role of contagion is to transfer these properties into other objects, in this case, the drinks. As a result, a person who sees the cockroach in the drink will experience revulsion of it. Similarities. The second law, commonly called similarities, states that â€Å"the image equals the object† (Rozin et al, 1986). Under this law, objects, especially food, repre sent other undesirable objects.An acceptable food, for example, fudge shaped into dog feces, might invoke revulsion from people because of its looks or what it represents. The role of the second law of sympathetic magic in the acquisition of disgust in an individual is the representation of disgust elicitors by acceptable objects, such as food. Development and Maintenance of Disgust Disgust is often viewed as a food-related emotion. Most studies in the evolution of disgust pointed it as a response of distaste. Bad tastes elicit disgust in varying degrees or relevance.For example, bitter foods are less accepted by people’s mouth, whereas poisonous foods are totally avoided. Disgust serves as a protective mechanism of people against any harm, especially ingestion of foods. However, disgust can also be elicited by other factors. According to Rozin et al (2000), there are nine elicitors of disgust in the Americans, namely: food, animals, body products, sexual behaviors, violation s of the dermal layer, poor hygiene, physical contact with dead or corpses, interpersonal contamination and certain moral offenses. Food RejectionThe most basic elicitor of disgust in humans is food. This arises from the fundamental fact that living organisms, especially humans, need to eat. The need for food is more frequent than any other things. Food shaped cultures more than anything because people are more inclined to eat together. Anything that seems delicious for us today is the result of the thousands of years of cultural transformations. On the other hand, anything disgusting today is also the result of these transformations. Using food as the variable in experimental studies, disgust can be classified under food rejection.The laws of sympathetic magic are concerned on the differentiation between acceptable foods or foods that are thought to be offensive and contaminating (Rozin & Fallon, 94) in different cultures. The mouth plays a very important role since it is the main entry point into the human body. It is therefore important to determine which food must be eaten. Offensive and contaminating foods are rendered inedible thus preserving the health of populations or religious entities. Food rejection is the avoidance of offensive and contaminating foods.Several factors affect people’s perception of likes and dislikes. Rozin (1986) noted that many people dislike certain foods and render it contaminating and inedible. Distaste is the most frequent elicitor of disgust which is also characterized as food rejection. Issues Related with One-Trial Learning Studies on one-trial learning of disgust have been used in exploring the nature of disgust. In this context, a number of individuals are being asked to fill-up questionnaires or survey forms which ask for event(s) that changed their perception of likes to dislikes or dislikes to likes.Initial results showed that it is harder for people to provide preferences rather than creating aversions. This is supported by data gathered from the one-trial learning study done by Rozin (1986). Table 1 shows the number of incidence of reported one-trial learning. However, there are certain issues on the accuracy of the results of one-trial learning. These issues are subjects of debates on the reliability of one-trial learning in the study of disgust. Issues include errors in the statistical method used, bias as results of world events, and biases about learning of new negative events (Rozin, 1986).Relationship of Hedonic Processes to other Cognitive Processes Hedonic shifts in relation to disgust are more on aversions rather than preferences. This was proved using the one-trial learning study on human perceptions of likes and dislikes. The results of the one-trial learning studies showed that there is greater tendency for people to shift from like to dislike and lesser tendency to do otherwise. Thus, negative hedonic shift is more common in disgust. Conclusion Psychologists and socio-analys ts have long been fascinated with the study of disgust as an emotion.A number of articles have been produced in attempts of explaining the emotion. The expression of disgust is divided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia components. Among these components, the most easily identified is the expressive component which is seen through facial expressions. The facial expressions include crossed eyebrows, raised or curled lips, and wrinkled nose. The two laws of sympathetic magic played important roles in the development and maintenance of disgust.Studies showed that people tend to dislike someone or something that is related to an object (animate or not) in either contagion or similarities. These two laws are vital to the development of cultural entities. Finally, the use of one-trial learning in exploring the hedonic shifts of people in relation to disgust raised many issues that are subjects of debates. The issues include errors in the statistical me thod used, bias as results of world events, and biases about learning of new negative events. References: Baeyens, F., G. Crombez, Van den Bergh & Eelen, P. (1988). Once in contact always in contact: Evaluative conditioning is resistant to extinction. 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