Anthropological Perspective on Culture and Society

Anthropological Perspective on Culture and Society The three branches of human sciences (Social sciences), Sociology, Anthropology and Psychology are interlinked in that they try to describe the different areas of human life and their relationships to each other. They offer an explanation on human behavior and in the society they live. Furthermore, these social sciences provide essential skills in analyzing the intentions and behavior of individuals and groups they encounter. Individual identity is forged by ones culture, groups, and by institutional influences. Institutions such as families, schools and even churches greatly influence human beings yet these institutions are merely organizations whose aim is to develop the core social values of its constituents. In discussing cultural diversity on the perspectives of the three social sciences there is a need to understand the difference between culture and society. This is because the all the three disciplines explore culture and society to understand human behavior in depth. The term Culture has many different meanings, for some it is the appreciation of art, literature, music and food, while for others like biologists; they take it as a colony of microorganisms growing in a nutrient medium in a laboratory. However for social scientists, culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns. Cultures are traditions and customs, transmitted through learning and adaptations. Children obtain such traditions by growing up in a certain society, through a process called enculturation. A culture results into a degree of uniformity in behavior and thought among the inhabitants of a particular society (Baugher et. al, 2000, p. 4). The terms culture and society are different as cultures are co nsidered to be complexes of learned behavior patterns and perceptions while society is a group of interacting organisms. Therefore this paper will critically analyze cultural diversity based on the three social sciences, evaluating the social sciences similarities and differences. Discussion Anthropological perspective of culture diversity When it comes to understanding diversity in cultures, the anthropological view can help humanity understand and appreciate the complexity of diverse cultures. This discipline involves the study of biological and cultural origins of the humans. The subject matter of anthropology is wide-ranging, including, fossil remains, non human primate anatomy and behavior, artifacts from past cultures, past and present languages, and all the prehistoric and contemporary cultures of the world. The subfield of cultural anthropology is the most commonly studied and useful in analyzing and interpreting the diverse cultures of the world. In recent years, recognition of the need for multicultural awareness, understanding, and skills has grown in our society. The aim is to achieve multicultural diversity competence, which is a term that refers to the ability to demonstrate respect and understanding, to communicate effectively, and to work with different cultural backgrounds (George Fischer, 1999, p. 71). These diversities in culture encompass differences in gender, race, ethnicity, religion, age, sexual orientation, social class and physical appearance. Misunderstandings and conflicts in the society are two major consequences of lack of awareness in the ever increasing cultural diversity. Cultural anthropology explains cultural diversity through aspects of social life such as material culture, social organizations, politics, economics, symbolism, change and development, ethnici ty and modern nation-state formation. In explaining and interpreting the diverse cultures, anthropology uses ethnography- describing particular cultures; and ethnology- comparing two or more cultures. In addition it incorporates the holistic approach in cultural studies by studying biological and cultural aspects of human behavior; encompassing the broadest possible time frame by looking at contemporary, historic and prehistoric societies; examining human culture in every part of the world; and studies many different aspects of human culture (George Fischer, 1999, p.68). Cultural diversity is relevant to a cultural approach in learning, in that learning and motivational styles and cross cultural pedagogical strategies assume attention to diversity in learner populations and pluralistic learning outcomes. The data, concepts and insights derived from the study of other cultures helps us meet our professional goals and lead more satisfying lives in a multicultural society (Herdman Macmillan, 2010, p. 23). Moreover, the process of studying anthropology is also valuable because of the skills and competencies that it helps to develop. Activities such as taking courses about different cultures, participating in local internships and international organizations, living in the universitys international dormitory, and participating in study abroad programs all combine to provide students with valuable skills in understanding diverse cultures hence achieve multicultural diverse competence. There is a need to come up with a strategy to accept cultural diversity, for example, in the United states of America the freedom to pursue ones individual dream and fortunes in the united states has produced a widening gap between the haves and have-nots. According to Herdman and Mcmillian, 2010, managing directors in United States of America made forty times as much compared to the average worker in 1973 and three hundred as much in 2004. At the same time, earnings of middle class were growing slightly and those of lower class were actually shrinking. This situation to a European means that the state is working against well being of the population, particularly in light of tax cuts during this period. Another instance is when expressing feelings of affection which is typical for all human. The manner in which the affection is expressed is cultural, the kiss is not universally accepted as a symbol of affection; some societies consider it suggestive of cannibalism. A basic anthropological strategy for understanding other cultures is to look at a cultural feature from within its original context rather than looking at it from the perspective of ones own culture; being inquisitive, non-judgmental, and open to new ways of thinking is vital in understanding other cultures; Balancing contradictory needs instead of trying to eliminate them; emphasize global team work; develop a cognitive complex which is made up of twin abilities of differentiating and integrating; and developing a personal acuity (Naylor, 1997, p. 157). The strategy will not only help you personally in understanding other cultures but assist you in integrating to any culture globally. Sociological perspective on Cultural Diversity Sociology is critical analysis of the society in which humans live. People who make sense of the social world-past, present and future- are referred to as sociologists (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 8). Sociologists research on social structures such as class, family, politics, social problems like drug abuse and crime all of which influence the society. Social interaction amongst humans is the basic sociological concept, because all humans and groups that make up a society socialize. Specialists who focus on particular details of specific interactions as they occur daily are called micro sociologists and those that focus on larger patterns of interactions amongst larger sections of the society such as state and economy are called macro sociologists. A society is rarely culturally uniform hence the result of different cultures. As societies develop and become more complex, different cultural traditions appear. The more complex the society, the more likely the culture will be internally varied and diverse. The causes of cultural changes in a society are cultural diffusion, innovation, and imposition of cultural change by outside world (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 72). Two concepts from sociology help in understanding complexity of culture in a given society, dominant culture and subcultures. Dominant culture is the culture of the most powerful group in the society. Although it is not the only culture in society, it is commonly referred to be the culture of a society, despite other cultures present. Subcultures on the other hand are cultures of groups whose values and norms of behavior differ from those of the dominant culture. Members of subcultures tend to interact frequently and share a common world view. Sociology stipulates that culture consists of both material objects and abstract thoughts and behavior. Several elements which sociologists consider in understanding culture diversity are language, norms, beliefs and values (Kaufman, 2004, p. 7). Language: Learning the language of a culture is essential to becoming part of a society. Language shapes culture as it provides the categories through which social reality is understood. This was proved by Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Worf in the 1950s through their theory called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The hypothesis states, it is not that you perceive something first and then think of how to express it, but that language itself determines what you think and perceive (Anderson Taylor, 2005, p. 83). In understanding cultural diversity language is seen to reflect the assumptions of a culture. This is seen and exemplified by: language affecting peoples perception of reality; Language reflecting the social and political status of different groups in society; Groups advocating changing language referring to them as a way of asserting positive group identity; The implications of language emerging from specific historical and cultural contexts; language distorting actual grou p experience; language shaping peoples perceptions of groups and events in society. Norms: They are specific cultural expectations for how to behave in a given situation. Lack of norms in any society results in turmoil however, with established norms people would be able to act, behave and interact in a society properly. In the early years of sociology, William Graham Summer in 1906 identified two types of norms; folkways and mores. Folkways are general standards of behavior adhered to by a group, example wearing pants and not skirts for men. Mores are stricter mores which are seen to control moral and ethical behaviors such as injunctions, legal and religious. Beliefs: They are shared ideas people hold collectively within a given culture, and these beliefs are also the basis of many cultural norms and values, example in USA there is a widespread belief in God. Sociology study belief in a variety of ways, and each theoretical mentation provides different insights into the significance of beliefs for human society. Values: They are abstract standards in a society or group that defines the ideal principles of what is desirable and morally correct, for example in USA equality and freedom are important values which provide a general outline for behavior. Values provide values for behavior, but can also be sources of conflict like the political conflict over abortion. Understanding the four elements of sociology enables proper integration in any society. Integration into the society is achieved by respecting the diverse cultures that are found in a society. Sociology studies culture in a variety of ways, asking numerous questions about the relationship of culture to other social institutions and the role of culture in modern life. The new cultural perspective on culture according to Naylor, 1997, is that it is ephemeral, unpredictable and constantly changing; is a material manifestation of consumer-oriented society; and is best understood by analyzing its artifacts- books, films, television images. Psychological Perspective on Culture Diversity Social psychology a subfield of psychology has its origins in the early years of the twentieth century. Its findings do not necessarily concern human thinking throughout history but rather meet the requirements of our modern society. Social psychology research aims to capture the interplay between social thinking and socio-historical dynamics in order to understand how societies function and how culture is produced (Xenia, 2004, p. 13). Psychology is distinguished from neighboring social sciences through its emphasis on studying samples of organisms within controlled settings rather than focusing upon larger groups, organizations or nations. Psychologists test the specific results of changes in a controlled environment on the individual in that environment, but there are strongly set procedures through which organisms are tested psychometrically. There is a big debate in psychology and more generally in social sciences how to define culture. In some definitions the concept of culture includes behavior, in the sense that our behaviors are expressions of our culture. Other definitions emphasize that participating in a culture means having understanding of our world. However with trying to find a consensual definition of this concept, the main argument of researchers in psychology is to highlight how important it is to take into account the cultural context in which psychological studies were conducted (Kerr Tindale, 2011). They were right to point out that humans are linked to the social context in which they live, proving that psychological functioning and human behavior are universal and culture specific. Sharing a culture means that people have a common way of viewing their relationship with the social and physical environment; of communicating their thoughts and emotions; of prioritizing their activities; of dividing tasks and resources; of attributing values, honors, and power (Xenia, 2004, pp.17-18). When they do not share the above listed elements then culture diversity occurs from a psychological point of view. The people of diverse cultures are not like minded hence the question is, whether individuals from diverse cultures can coexist harmoniously in time space and under the same political and social organizations? The answer to this question provides the idea of how to cope with culture diversity. Various cultures flourish from the recognition that they represent a set of beliefs, modes of thinking and practices that are peculiar to them and different from others. Some cultures are more inclusive example western cultures, others refer to a small group of people for instance the Basque culture, but each one of them is important for its members because they represent the way they construct their social reality, and provides them with action alternatives. Conclusion Culture Diversity has been discussed using the three social science disciplines of Anthropology, Sociology and Psychology. Even though all of them have a similarity of trying to understand culture diversity in humans, they are different in terms of how they approach the study. Anthropology looks at culture diversity at the perspective of humanity, his origin and through aspects of social life such as ethnicity, symbolism, politics, race and so on. Anthropology explains that the origin of culture diversity is through mankind hence the concentration a human perspective. Sociology looks at the society which humans live so as to explain culture diversity. It states that elements such as language, beliefs, norms, and values are what bring about culture diversities. Psychology on the other hand analyses culture diversity with focus entirely on internal factors that influence individuals. Therefore the three social sciences provide an understanding of culture diversity and a basis of respecting other cultures.

Hedonics Presentation: Disgust

Disgust is an intriguing emotion. Psychologists have long been puzzled by its nature: how it develops in an individual and how it affects the society. According to Rozin et al (Rozin, Haidt, McCauley, 2000), there are nine domains of disgust elicitors in North Americans, namely: food, animals, body products, sexual behaviors, violations of the dermal layer, poor hygiene, physical contact with dead or corpses, interpersonal contamination and certain moral offenses. These elicitors are the key to the development as well as maintenance of disgust in humans.Food is considered the most fundamental factor in the development of such emotion. Disgust serves as a mechanism that helps protect the body from ingesting harmful objects or poisonous foods. It is a response towards bad tastes which are acquired through the mouth. As an emotion, disgust is manifested through behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia components. Thus, it can be analyzed by examining these components. Understan ding how disgust affects moral judgment, conflict and ethno-political violence lies in these categories.The purpose of this paper is to explain what disgust is, identify the different factors associated with its development, understand how it is expressed by an individual, and finally, explain how it affects the society. Expression of Disgust: How Disgust is expressed Personally and Culturally and the Role of Sympathetic Magic Disgust is a basic emotion that is listed in almost all lists of emotions with at least four types in it. It satisfies any criterion in characterizing emotions, may it be facial, semantic, or eclectic (Rozin et al, 2000).Expression of disgust in individuals as well as cultural entities is subdivided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia (Rozin et al, 2000). Laws of sympathetic magic also affect the display of disgust in an individual and how disgust is expressed in every cultural entity. Individual Expression Manifestation of disgust as an emotion in humans is subdivided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia (Rozin et al, 2000). In behavioral component, disgust is being expressed as keeping away from objects, events, or situations which are also characteristics of rejection.In the physiological component, disgust is manifested by two types of physiological changes: one is nausea and the other is salivation. Nausea is correlated with disgust, though it is not a requirement for someone to experience it. Salivation was introduced by Angyal as being correlated with the expression of disgust. It is also associated with nausea, though it can occur without resulting to or beginning from nausea. In the expressive component, disgust is manifested through facial expressions (Rozin, Lowery, & Ebert, 1994).A â€Å"disgust face† is an expression which is analogous to every human being. Such facial expressions include raised cheeks, narrowed eyebrows, curled upper lips, protrud ed tongue and wrinkled nose. Motions of the heads, such as jerking backwards and shaking from side-to-side, are also correlated with disgust. Sometimes, the person may utter sounds like â€Å"ach† or â€Å"ugh†. These expressions depend upon the nature of elicitors which are commonly used to discourage entry of something, most probably food, or as a response to something that causes the disgust, such as rotten flesh.The qualia component of disgust is the mental or feeling component which is considered to be the most difficult to study. As compared with other emotions, disgust is usually experienced in shorter time durations and some disgust-eliciting situations might invoke humor. Laws of Sympathetic Magic Two laws of sympathetic magic, contagion and similarity, which were vital in the formation of belief systems of ancient and traditional cultures, were found to have had great application in the study of various human behaviors (Rozin, Millman, & Nemeroff, 1986).Rozin et al (1986) were able to establish direct link between these laws and disgust. Contagion. The first law of sympathetic magic states that â€Å"once in contact, always in contact†. Contagion, as it is more popularly known, invokes varied response from people. One of which is disgust. As its definition suggests, contagion is the transfer of properties through physical contact of one object into another. Rozin et al (1986) studied how drinks became undesirable after a sterilized, dead cockroach was dipped into it.Cockroaches are usually associated with dirt and diseases and any contact with it invokes disgust. The role of contagion is to transfer these properties into other objects, in this case, the drinks. As a result, a person who sees the cockroach in the drink will experience revulsion of it. Similarities. The second law, commonly called similarities, states that â€Å"the image equals the object† (Rozin et al, 1986). Under this law, objects, especially food, repre sent other undesirable objects.An acceptable food, for example, fudge shaped into dog feces, might invoke revulsion from people because of its looks or what it represents. The role of the second law of sympathetic magic in the acquisition of disgust in an individual is the representation of disgust elicitors by acceptable objects, such as food. Development and Maintenance of Disgust Disgust is often viewed as a food-related emotion. Most studies in the evolution of disgust pointed it as a response of distaste. Bad tastes elicit disgust in varying degrees or relevance.For example, bitter foods are less accepted by people’s mouth, whereas poisonous foods are totally avoided. Disgust serves as a protective mechanism of people against any harm, especially ingestion of foods. However, disgust can also be elicited by other factors. According to Rozin et al (2000), there are nine elicitors of disgust in the Americans, namely: food, animals, body products, sexual behaviors, violation s of the dermal layer, poor hygiene, physical contact with dead or corpses, interpersonal contamination and certain moral offenses. Food RejectionThe most basic elicitor of disgust in humans is food. This arises from the fundamental fact that living organisms, especially humans, need to eat. The need for food is more frequent than any other things. Food shaped cultures more than anything because people are more inclined to eat together. Anything that seems delicious for us today is the result of the thousands of years of cultural transformations. On the other hand, anything disgusting today is also the result of these transformations. Using food as the variable in experimental studies, disgust can be classified under food rejection.The laws of sympathetic magic are concerned on the differentiation between acceptable foods or foods that are thought to be offensive and contaminating (Rozin & Fallon, 94) in different cultures. The mouth plays a very important role since it is the main entry point into the human body. It is therefore important to determine which food must be eaten. Offensive and contaminating foods are rendered inedible thus preserving the health of populations or religious entities. Food rejection is the avoidance of offensive and contaminating foods.Several factors affect people’s perception of likes and dislikes. Rozin (1986) noted that many people dislike certain foods and render it contaminating and inedible. Distaste is the most frequent elicitor of disgust which is also characterized as food rejection. Issues Related with One-Trial Learning Studies on one-trial learning of disgust have been used in exploring the nature of disgust. In this context, a number of individuals are being asked to fill-up questionnaires or survey forms which ask for event(s) that changed their perception of likes to dislikes or dislikes to likes.Initial results showed that it is harder for people to provide preferences rather than creating aversions. This is supported by data gathered from the one-trial learning study done by Rozin (1986). Table 1 shows the number of incidence of reported one-trial learning. However, there are certain issues on the accuracy of the results of one-trial learning. These issues are subjects of debates on the reliability of one-trial learning in the study of disgust. Issues include errors in the statistical method used, bias as results of world events, and biases about learning of new negative events (Rozin, 1986).Relationship of Hedonic Processes to other Cognitive Processes Hedonic shifts in relation to disgust are more on aversions rather than preferences. This was proved using the one-trial learning study on human perceptions of likes and dislikes. The results of the one-trial learning studies showed that there is greater tendency for people to shift from like to dislike and lesser tendency to do otherwise. Thus, negative hedonic shift is more common in disgust. Conclusion Psychologists and socio-analys ts have long been fascinated with the study of disgust as an emotion.A number of articles have been produced in attempts of explaining the emotion. The expression of disgust is divided into four components: behavioral, physiological, expressive, and qualia components. Among these components, the most easily identified is the expressive component which is seen through facial expressions. The facial expressions include crossed eyebrows, raised or curled lips, and wrinkled nose. The two laws of sympathetic magic played important roles in the development and maintenance of disgust.Studies showed that people tend to dislike someone or something that is related to an object (animate or not) in either contagion or similarities. These two laws are vital to the development of cultural entities. Finally, the use of one-trial learning in exploring the hedonic shifts of people in relation to disgust raised many issues that are subjects of debates. The issues include errors in the statistical me thod used, bias as results of world events, and biases about learning of new negative events. References: Baeyens, F., G. Crombez, Van den Bergh & Eelen, P. (1988). Once in contact always in contact: Evaluative conditioning is resistant to extinction. Advances in Behavioral Research and Therapy 10: 179-199. Rozin, P. (1986). One-trial acquired likes and dislikes in humans: Disgust as a US, food predominance, and negative learning predominance. Learning and Motivation 17: 180-189. [2532] (1999). Food is fundamental, fun, frightening, and far-reaching. Social Research, 66(1), 9. Rozin, P. and Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychol. Rev. 94: 23-41. [660] Rozin, P., Haidt, J., & McCauley, C.R. (2000). Disgust. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions, 2nd Edition (pp. 637-653). New York: Guilford Press. Rozin, P., Millman, L., & Nemeroff, C (1986). Operation of the Laws of Sympathetic Magic in Disgust and Other Domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50(4), 793-712. Rozin, P., L. Lowery, & Ebert, R. (1994). Varieties of disgust faces and the structure of disgust. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 66(5): 870-881. [1312] Rozin, P. and C. Nemeroff (1990). The laws of sympathetic magic. A psychological analysis of similarity and contagion. Cultural Psychology. Essays on Comparative Human Development. J. Stigler, R. A. Shweder and G. Herdt. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 205-232. [705] Rozin, P. and D. Zellner (1985). The role of Pavlovian conditioning in the acquisition of food likes and dislikes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 443: 189-202. [496] Siegal, M. (1996). Becoming mindful of food and conversation. Current Directions in Psychological Science. 4(6), 177-181. [1339]   

The Movie Crash And The Streets Of Los Angeles

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The first thing Jean does as she see s the two men is grab hold of her husband’s arm tight. Anthony notices what she does and is confused. Anthony tells Peter she is nervous to see two black men. They have a swagger so she assumes they are a danger. Anthony and Peter then hold the couple at gunpoint and steal their vehicle. In this scene you can see person perception. Person perception is making assumptions about people based off of what you think instead of how they really are (Forgas, 1987). There are personal perception principleShow MoreRelatedEssay on Police Corruption: Crooked Cops1499 Words   |  6 Pagesinstances of devious police officers in Los Angeles, New York and other major cities in the United States have questioned their universal code, to protect and to serve.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The movie  Crash  focuses especially on the city of Los Angeles. 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The Royal Road of the Achaemenids in Darius Empire

The Royal Road of the Achaemenids was a major intercontinental thoroughfare built by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty king Darius the Great (521–485 BCE). The road network allowed Darius a way to access and maintain control over his conquered cities throughout the Persian empire. It is also, ironically enough, the same road that Alexander the Great used to conquer the Achaemenid dynasty a century and a half later. The Royal Road led from the Aegean Sea to Iran, a length of some 1,500 miles (2,400 kilometers). A major branch connected the cities of Susa, Kirkuk, Nineveh, Edessa, Hattusa, and Sardis. The journey from Susa to Sardis was reported to have taken 90 days on foot, and three more to get to the Mediterranean coast at Ephesus. The journey would have been faster on horseback, and carefully placed way stations helped speed the communication network. From Susa the road connected to Persepolis and India and intersected with other road systems leading to the ancient allied and competing kingdoms of Media, Bactria, and Sogdiana. A branch from Fars to Sardis crossed the foothills of the Zagros mountains and east of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, through Kilikia and Cappadocia before reaching Sardis. Another branch led into Phyrgia. Not Just a Road Network The network might have been called the Royal Road, but it also included rivers, canals, and trails, as well as ports and anchorages for seaborne travel. One canal built for Darius I connected the Nile to the Red Sea. An idea of the amount of traffic that the roads saw has been gleaned by ethnographer Nancy J. Malville, who examined ethnographic records of Nepali porters. She found that human porters can move loads of 60–100 kilograms (132–220 pounds) a distance of 10–15 kilometers (6–9 miles) per day without the benefit of roads. Mules can carry loads of 150–180 kg (330–396 lbs) up to 24 km (14 mi) per day; and camels can carry much heavier loads up to 300 kg (661 lbs), some 30 km (18 mi) per day. Pirradazish: Express Postal Service According to the Greek historian Herodotus, a postal relay system called pirradazish (express runner or fast runner) in Old Iranian and angareion in Greek, served to connect up the major cities in an ancient form of high-speed communication. Herodotus is known to have been prone to exaggeration, but he was definitely impressed with what he saw and heard. There is nothing mortal that is faster than the system that the Persians have devised for sending messages. Apparently, they have horses and men posted at intervals along the route, the same number in total as the overall length in days of the journey, with a fresh horse and rider for every day of travel. Whatever the conditions—it may be snowing, raining, blazing hot, or dark—they never fail to complete their assigned journey in the fastest possible time. The first man passes his instructions on to the second, the second to the third, and so on. Herodotus, The Histories Book 8, chapter 98, cited in Colburn and translated by R. Waterfield. Historic Records of the Road As you might have guessed, there are multiple historical records of the road, including such as Herotodus who mentioned the royal waystations along one of the best-known segments. Extensive information also comes from the Persepolis Fortification Archive (PFA), tens of thousands of clay tablets and fragments incised in cuneiform writing, and excavated from the ruins of Darius capital at Persepolis. Much information about the Royal Road comes from the PFAs Q texts, tablets which record the disbursement of specific travelers rations along the way, describing their destinations and/or points of origin. Those endpoints are often far beyond the local area of Persepolis and Susa. One travel document was carried by the individual named Nehtihor, who was authorized to draw rations in a string of cities through northern Mesopotamia from Susa to Damascus. Demotic and hieroglyphic graffiti dated to Darius Is 18th regnal year (~503 BCE) has identified another important segment of the Royal Road known as Darb Rayayna, which ran in North Africa between Armant in the Qena Bend in Upper Egypt and the Kharga Oasis in the Western Desert. Architectural Features Determining Darius construction methods of the road is somewhat difficult since the Achmaenid road was built following older roadways. Probably most of the routes were unpaved but there are some exceptions. A few intact sections of the road which date to Dariuss time, such as that at Gordion and Sardis, were constructed with cobblestone pavements atop a low embankment from 5–7 meters (16–23 feet) in width and, in places, faced with a curbing of dressed stone. At Gordion, the road was 6.25 m (20.5 ft) wide, with a packed gravel surface and curbstones and a ridge down the middle dividing it into two lanes. Theres also a rock-cut road segment at Madakeh which has been associated with the Persepolis–Susa road, 5 m (16.5 ft) wide. These paved sections were likely limited to the vicinities of cities or the most important arteries. Way Stations Even ordinary travelers had to stop on such long journeys. A hundred and eleven way-posting stations were reported to have existed on the main branch between Susa and Sardis, where fresh horses were kept for travelers. They are recognized by their similarities to caravanserais, stops on the Silk Road for camel traders. These are square or rectangular stone buildings with multiple rooms around a broad market area, and an enormous gate allowing parcel- and human-laden camels to pass under it. The Greek philosopher Xenophon called them hippon, of horses in Greek, which means they probably also included stables. A handful of way stations have been tentatively identified archaeologically. One possible way station is a large (40x30 m, 131x98 ft) five-room stone building near the site of Kuh-e Qale (or Qaleh Kali), on or very close to the Persepolis–Susa road, known to have been a major artery for royal and court traffic. It is somewhat more elaborate than would have been expected for a simple travelers inn, with fancy columns and porticoes. Expensive luxury items in delicate glass and imported stone have been found at Qaleh Kali, all of which leads scholars to surmise that the site was an exclusive way station for wealthier travelers. Travelers Comfort Inns Another possible but less fancy way station has been identified at the site of JinJan (Tappeh Survan), in Iran. There are two known near Germabad and Madakeh on the Pesrpolis–Susa road, one at Tangi-Bulaghi near Pasargadae, and one at Deh Bozan between Susa and Ecbatana. Tang-i Bulaghi is a courtyard surrounded by thick walls, with several smaller ancient buildings, which fits other types of ancient buildings but also caravanserais. The one near Madakeh is of similar construction. Various historic documents suggest that there were likely maps, itineraries, and milestones to aid travelers in their journeys. According to documents in the PFA, there were also road maintenance crews. References exist of gangs of workmen known as road counters or people who count the road, who made sure that the road was in good repair. There is also a mention in the Roman writer Claudius Aelianus De natura animalium indicating that Darius asked at one point that the road from Susa to Media be cleared of scorpions. Archaeology of the Royal Road Much of what is known about the Royal Road comes not from archaeology, but from the Greek historian Herodotus, who described the Achaemenid imperial postal system. Archaeological evidence suggests that there were several precursors to the Royal Road: that portion which connects Gordion to the coast was likely used by Cyrus the Great during his conquest of Anatolia. It is possible that the first roads were established in the 10th century BCE under the Hittites. These roads would have been used as trade routes by the Assyrians and Hittites at Boghakzoy. Historian David French has argued that the much later Roman roads would have been constructed along the ancient Persian roads as well; some of the Roman roads are used today, meaning that parts of the Royal Road have been used continually for some 3,000 years. French argues that a southern route across the Euphrates at Zeugma and across Cappodocia, ending at Sardis, was the main Royal Road. This was the route taken by Cyrus the Younger in 401 BCE; and it is possible that Alexander the Great traveled this same route while conquering much of Eurasia in the 4th century BCE. The northern route proposed by other scholars as the main thoroughfare has three possible routes: through Ankara in Turkey and into Armenia, crossing the Euphrates in the hills near the Keban dam, or crossing the Euphrates at Zeugma. All of these segments were used both before and after the Achaemenids. Sources Asadu, Ali, and Barbara Kaim. The Acheamenid Building at Site 64 in Tang-E Bulaghi. Achaemenet Arta 9.3 (2009). Print. Colburn, Henry P. Connectivity and Communication in the Achaemenid Empire. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 56.1 (2013): 29–52. Print.Dusinberre, Elspeth R. M. Aspects of Empire in Achaemenid Sardis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print.French, David. Pre- and Early-Roman Roads of Asia Minor. The Persian Royal Road. Iran 36 (1998): 15–43. Print.Malville, Nancy J. Long-Distance Transport of Bulk Goods in the Pre-Hispanic American Southwest. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 20.2 (2001): 230–43. Print.Stoneman, Richard. How Many Miles to Babylon? Maps, Guides, Roads, and Rivers in the Expeditions of Xenophon and Alexander. Greece and Rome 62.1 (2015): 60–74. Print.Sumner, W. M. Achaemenid Settlement in the Persepolis Plain. American Journal of Archaeology 90.1 (1986): 3–31. Print.Young, Rodne y S. Gordion on the Royal Road. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 107.4 (1963): 348–64. Print.